1 General sampling techniques.- 1.1 Sampling goals and requirements.- 1.1.1 Ambient sampling.- 1.1.1.1 General objectives.- 1.1.1.2 Meteorological considerations.- 1.1.1.3 Sampling site criteria.- 1.1.1.4 Sample scheduling.- 1.1.2. Source sampling.- 1.1.2.1 General objectives.- 1.1.2.2 Stationary source sampling.- 1.1.2.3 Mobile source sampling.- 1.2 Sampling methods.- 1.2.1 General sampling system considerations.- 1.2.1.1 Intake and transfer component.- 1.2.1.2 Collection component.- 1.2.1.3 Flow measurement component.- 1.2.1.4 Air moving component.- 1.2.2 Aerosols.- 1.2.2.1 Aerosol sampling considerations.- 1.2.2.2 Aerosol sampling collection components.- 1.2.2.3 Ambient aerosol sampling applications.- 1.2.2.4 Emission source aerosol sampling applications.- 1.2.3 Gases.- 1.2.3.1 Gas sampling considerations.- 1.2.3.2 Gas sampling collection components.- 1.2.3.3 Ambient gas sampling applications.- 1.2.3.4 Emission source gas sampling applications.- 1.2.4 Sampling of rainwater and fog.- References.- 2 Air pollution meteorology.- 2.1 Introduction.- 2.1.1 Wind and the turbulent mixing layer.- 2.1.2 The effect of source height.- 2.1.3. Plant design to achieve maximum atmospheric dispersion.- 2 1.4 Factors affecting long-range transport of pollutants.- 2.2 Meteorological measurements.- 2.2.1 Parameters affecting transport and dispersion of pollutants.- 2.2.2 Wind velocity measurements.- 2.2.3 Measurements to determine the atmospheric stability.- 2.2.3.1 Parameterizing the stability.- 2.2.3.2 Measurements of temperature at a fixed height.- 2.2.3.3.Measurements of vertical temperature gradient.- 2.2.3.4 Measurements of thermal radiation.- 2.2.4 Turbulence measurements.- 2.2.4.1 Turbulent energy.- 2.2.4.2 Turbulence spectra.- 2.2.4.3 Turbulent fluxes.- 2.2.5 Measurements of mixing depth.- 2.2.6 Precipitation measurements.- 2.3 Outline of the more important features of the atmospheric transport and dispersion of pollutants.- 2.3.1 Transport and dispersion in different types of air mass or air stream.- 2.3.1.1 Air stream characteristics.- 2.3.1.2 Air mass origins.- 2.3.2 Diurnal variations in air stream characteristics.- 2.3.2.1 Settled anticyclonic.- 2.3.2.2 Warm advection.- 2.3.2.3 Cold advection.- 2.3.2.4 Unsettled cyclonic.- 2.3.3 Frequency of occurrence of different air streams.- 2.3.4 Land and sea breezes.- 2.3.5 Upslope and downslope winds.- 2.3.6 Urban areas and elevated sources.- 2.4 Calculation of the atmospheric transmission of pollutants.- 2.4.1 Introduction.- 2.4.2 Calculation of plume rise.- 2.4.2.1 Selection of equation.- 2.4.2.2 Plume rise formulae.- 2.4.3 The effect of particle fall velocity on plume height.- 2.4.4 Calculation of dispersion.- 2.4.4.1 Eddy diffusivity (or K-type) models.- 2.4.4.2 Gaussian models.- 2.4.4.3 Second and higher order closure models.- 2.4.5 Box and cell models.- 2.4.6 Calculation of trajectories.- 2.4.7 The effects of deposition.- 2.4.7.1 General.- 2.4.7.2 Dry deposition.- 2.4.7.3 Wet deposition.- 2.4.7.4 Occult deposition.- 2.5 Examples of calculations using Gaussian models.- References.- 3 Air pollution chemistry.- 3.1 Introduction.- 3.2 Inorganic reactions.- 3.2.1 The NO-NO2-O3 cycle.- 3.2.2 Formation of radical intermediates.- 3.2.2.1 Hydroxyl and hydroperoxyl radicals.- 3.2.2.2 The NO3 radical.- 3.2.3 Termination reactions.- 3.2.4 Other important inorganic reactions.- 3.2.4.1 HONO.- 3.2.4.2 HNO3, N2O5 and acid deposition.- 3.2.5 Peak concentrations of selected inorganic pollutants observed or expected in polluted atmospheres.- 3.3 Reactions involving organic compounds.- 3.3.1 Reactions of OH radicals with organics.- 3.3.1.1 Alkanes.- 3.3.1.2 Alkenes.- 3.3.1.3 Aromatics.- 3.3.1.4 Aldehydes.- 3.3.2 Reactions of O3 with organics.- 3.3.3 Reactions of NO3 radicals with organics.- 3.3.3.1 Alkanes.- 3.3.3.2 Alkenes.- 3.3.3.3 Aldehydes.- 3.3.3.4 Aromatics.- 3.4 Gas-to-particle conversion.- 3.4.1 SO2 photo-oxidation and formation of sulphate particulate.- 3.4.2 Formation of secondary nitrate and organic particulate.- 3.5 Conclusion.- References.- 4 Analysis of particulate pollutants.- 4.1 Introduction.- 4.1.1 Emission of particulate matter.- 4.1.2 Emission factors for particulate matter.- 4.1.3 Dispersion of atmospheric pollutants from a point source.- 4.1.3.1 Problems of short-term sampling.- 4.2 Suspended material.- 4.2.1 Sampling techniques.- 4.2.1.1 Filter paper techniques.- 4.2.2 Determination of total particulate pollutant concentrations.- 4.2.2.1 Light reflectance method.- 4.2.2.2 Gravimetric techniques.- 4.2.2.3 Other filter paper devices.- 4.2.2.4 Piezoelectric mass monitors.- 4.2.3 Cascade impactors.- 4.2.4 Light scattering techniques.- 4.2.4.1 The integrating nephelometer.- 4.2.4.2 Aerosol particle counters.- 4.2.5 The directional sampler.- 4.3 Dustfall sampling.- 4.3.1 Introduction.- 4.3.2 Designs of national deposit gauges.- 4.3.2.1 The British Standard deposit gauge.- 4.3.2.2 French Standard deposit gauge (Ref. NF, X43-006 (1972)).- 4.3.2.3 Norwegian NILU deposit gauge.- 4.3.3 Short-term surveys.- 4.3.3.1 Single bowl surveys.- 4.3.3.2 Larger surveys.- 4.3.4 British Standard directional deposit gauge.- 4.4 Physical techniques for classification of particulates.- 4.4.1 Density gradient separation.- 4.4.1.1 Density gradient liquids.- 4.4.1.2 Recovery and cleaning of liquids.- 4.4.1.3 Preparation of the gradient.- 4.4.2 Dispersion staining.- 4.4.3 Microscopic techniques.- 4.4.3.1 Mounting samples.- 4.4.3.2 Identification of dusts and reference library.- 4.4.3.3 Description of dusts from different combustion and industrial sources.- 4.4.3.4 Dust identification table.- 4.4.4 Determination of asbestos.- 4.4.4.1 Membrane filter method.- 4.4.4.2 Infrared technique for ambient atmospheres.- 4.4.4.3 Transmission electron microscope methods for ambient atmospheres.- 4.4.5 Determination of particle size distribution.- 4.4.5.1 Sieve techniques.- 4.4.5.2 Microscope techniques.- References.- 5 Metal analysis.- 5.1 Introduction.- 5.2 Analysis of particulate matter.- 5.2.1 General sampling considerations.- 5.2.2 Analytical methods involving no pretreatment of the sample.- 5.2.2.1 X-ray emission analysis.- 5.2.2.2 Radioactivation methods.- 5.2.3 Methods involving pretreatment of the samples.- 5.2.3.1 Emission spectrography.- 5.2.3.2 Ring oven methods.- 5.2.3.3 Polarography.- 5.2.3.4 Anodic stripping voltammetry.- 5.2.3.5 Spark source mass spectrometry.- 5.2.3.6 Spectrophotometry and fluorometry.- 5.2.3.7 Atomic spectroscopy.- 5.2.3.8 Other analytical methods.- 5.3 Gases and vapours.- 5.3.1 General sampling considerations.- 5.3.2.1 Metal carbonyls.- 5.3.2.2 Hg and its compounds.- 5.3.2.3 Volatile Pb compounds.- References.- 6. Nitrogen and sulphur compounds.- 6.1 Introduction.- 6.2 Basic analytical techniques.- 6.2.1 Sampling techniques.- 6.2.2 Analytical methods -- chemical.- 6.2.2.1 Acidimetric methods.- 6.2.2.2 Colorimetric methods.- 6.2.2.3 Coulometric methods.- 6.2.2.4 Miscellaneous chemical methods.- 6.2.3 Physical methods.- 6.2.3.1 Chemiluminescence.- 6.2.3.2 Fluorescence.- 6.2.3.3 Absorption spectroscopy.- 6.2.3.4 Gas chromatography.- 6.2.3.5 Other physical methods.- 6.3 Experimental section.- 6.3.1 Analysis of SO2.- 6.3.1.1 Chemical methods.- 6.3.1.2 Physical analysis of SO2.- 6.3.2 Analysis of SO3.- 6.3.3 Analysis of H2S.- 6.3.3.1 Chemical methods.- 6.3.3.2 Physical methods.- 6.3.4 Analysis of organic S compounds.- 6.3.4.1 Chemical methods.- 6.3.4.2 Physical methods.- 6.3.5 Analysis of oxides of nitrogen -- NO and NO2.- 6.3.5.1 Chemical methods.- 6.3.5.2 Physical methods.- 6.3.6 Analysis of NH3.- 6.3.6.1 Chemical methods.- 6.3.6.2 Physical methods.- 6.3.7 Miscellaneous N2 compounds.- 6.3.8 Preparation of standard gas mixtures for calibration.- 6.3.8.1 Preparation of standard mixtures by static methods.- 6.3.8.2 Preparation of standard mixtures by dynamic methods.- 6.4 Particulate compounds of S and N.- 6.4.1 Analysis of SO42-.- 6.4.1.1 Experimental procedure for SO42- (turbidimetric).- 6.4.2 Analysis of particulate NO3-.- 6.4.2.1 Experimental procedure for nitrate (colorimetric).- 6.4.3 Analysis of NH4+salts.- 6.4.3.1 Experimental procedure for NH4+ (colorimetric).- References.- 7 Secondary pollutants.- 7.1 Introduction.- 7.2 Basic analytical techniques for the analysis of gaseous secondary pollutants.- 7.2.1 Sampling methods.- 7.2.2 Analytical techniques.- 7.2.2.1 Chemical methods.- 7.2.2.2 Physical methods.- 7.3 Experimental section.- 7.3.1 Analysis of ''total oxidants''.- 7.3.1.1 Discussion of analytical methods.- 7.3.1.2 Neutral KI method for manual analyses of ''total oxidants''.- 7.3.1.3 Instruments for measurements of total oxidants.- 7.3.2 Analysis of O3.- 7.3.2.1 Chemical methods.- 7.3.2.2 Physical methods.- 7.3.2.3 Measurement of O3 by the C2H4-chemiluminescence method.- 7.3.2.4 Preparation of O3/air mixtures for calibration purposes.- 7.3.3 Analysis of H2O2.- 7.3.3.1 Chemical methods.- 7.3.3.2 Physical methods.- 7.3.4 Analysis of aliphatic aldehydes and oxygenated compounds.- 7.3.4.1 Chemical methods.- 7.3.4.2 A colorimetric analysis of total aliphatic aldehydes in air (MBTH method).- 7.3.4.3 Colorimetric analysis of ECHO (chromotropic acid method).- 7.3.4.4 Physical methods.- 7.3.5Analysis of PAN and related compounds.- 7.3.5.1 Chemical methods.- 7.3.5.2 Physical methods.- 7.3.5.3 Analysis of PAN by electron capture GC.- 7.3.6 Analysis of oxyacids of N.- 7.3.6.1 Chemical methods.- 7.3.6.2 Physical methods.- References.- 8 Hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide.- 8.1 Introduction.- 8.2 Volatile hydrocarbons.- 8.2.1 Sampling procedures.- 8.2.1.1 Cryogenic systems.- 8.2.1.2 Solid adsorption systems.- 8.2.1.3 Gas sampling systems.- 8.2.2 Analytical methods.- 8.2.2.1 Continuous instrumental analysers.- 8.2.2.2 Gas-liquid chromatography (GLC).- 8.2.2.3 Mass spectrometry and gas chromatography/mass spectrometry.- 8.2.2.4 Calibration methods.- 8.2.3 Methods for specific compounds.- 8.2.3.1 C2-C5 hydrocarbons.- 8.2.3.2 C6-C9 hydrocarbons.- 8.3 Hydrocarbon fraction of airborne p