George Edgin Pugh

This is an interesting analysis of human values taking as a starting point how one might develop a values system in a "cybernetic" system.This is basically specifying a "value function" which defines a scalar value over the space of all possible outcomes. Of course this implies ideas about outcomes and how far ahead the outcomes need to be delivered. On the basis of this "mechanical" analysis of a valuing system, Pugh, the author, examines the human decision system. He recognises that, as an evolutionary device, the human mind is imperfect and unfinished....we are aware only of the events within our "fluctuating, hazy veil of consciousness".....for example.
So he compares five functional components normally included in an artificial decision system with the human system; These five components are :
1. A data input procedure
2. A model of relationships in the environment which defines action alternatives and consequences
3. A procedure for searching through alternatives
4. A method for assigning values to alternative consequences
5. A decision mechanism for selecting alternatives.
Pugh concludes that the above model fits fairly well with human experience and talks about the role of evolution from simpler animals, like insects, with mainly hard-wired instincts and similar human drives plus higher level social values. He makes the point that not all our innate valuings are in the same units. Pain is quantitatively different from satisfaction at achieving a goal. He suggests that "it is a good rule of thumb that a value criterion is secondary rather than primary unless it is linked with a recognisable valuative sensation. Evaluative sensations include: Pain-Tactile pleasure; Discomfort-Comfort; Bad tase-Good Taste; Sorrow-Joy; Shame-Pride; Fear; Hunger; Anger; Thirst; Itch. As our sensory experience expands (with the above) the experiences are added to our innate or instinctive values....and "rational' decisions are based on this cumulative experience. So, we try to estimate, on the basis of past experience, what the values would be for each alternative.
Pugh then delves into the very murky field of classifying human values and comes up with his own list, viz:
1. Selfish values....associagted with individual welfare
2. Social values.....generally altruistic values
3. Intellectual values....generally aesthetic and intellectual values
He draws a distinction between the way he is using value terminology and traditionally ways of regarding "selfish values as "man's values" and intellectual values as "God's values". All human values have their origins in human evolutionary history. He makes the point that the interests of society have been served by encouraging behaviour conducive to the welfare of society rather than the individual.
"Each of the innate human value sensations is generated by some biological mechanism in the brain".However to make decisions the biological decision making system must place all valuation e decisions on a common "utility" scale. But not all human behaviour is under conscious control ..even habits and conditioned responses.He concludes that an adequate science of behaviour must provide a balanced treatment of both the rational and the irrational factors in the behaviour aft both animals and man.
Pugh seems fairly confident that his idealised functional view of the human decision system matches the known physiology remarkably well,
He explores each of his main classifications of human values mentioned above: selfish, social and intellectual, in some significant detail. He treats each in terms of an evolutionary process (which seems reasonable) and suggests that, via the larger frontal lobes in humans, we have the capacity for sharing and more complex social behaviour, for example, than the great apes.He has the usual digression into the role of facial expressions and emotions and the communication of emotions. (Though I've seen evidence elsewhere that humans are not that good really in reading emotions from facial expressions). Pugh claims that his "approach identifies the innate motivations with specific emotions and other evaluative sensations...and, at least in principle, the innate motivations are objectively quantifiable". He suggests that the innate value system that motivates social behaviour includes three kinds of components:
1. Emotions...providing the actual causative sensation
2. Sentiments...are a kind of predisposition too an emotion based on experience of that environment
3. Instinctive motives...stable factors which influence emotions (This seems an unnecessary complication and is very vague to my mind). He includes such things as: desire for dominance, desire for approval, desire for social acceptance etc. here. (And there seems to be some confusion about the difference between desires and values).
He suggests that most of the social values reduce to a single value scale...something like the "Joy-sorrow" continuum...and the pride vs shame continuum.....and this has been greatly enhanced as we evolved from the great apes.
And the purpose of intellectual values is to guide the individual in the development and refinement of his world model.
I'm somewhat attracted to his approach to explaining human values but such a complex model really invites criticism. It's certainly a long way from David Lewis's idea of personal values being the desires that we desire to have. Though maybe this would still fit within Pugh's intellectual values. And I guess, it can still accommodate my own MLitt thesis where I suggest that our personal values are the second order desires that we "BESIRE" to have . In other words....there has to be some component of belief AND desire.
What I really like about Pugh's approach is that he consistently relates it to evolutionary development and offers suggestions about how or why evolution drove development in this way. Though the subject is so big that it's a bit like trying to come up with a "theory of everything". But happy to give it four stars.… (mehr)