Overview:
Each individual has obligations to the community they belong to. Obligations to not harm others directly, and not allow inaction to cause harm to others. Those attempting to not concern themselves with others do prevent potentially harming others. But, as they prevent committing an injustice of commission, they are committing an injustice of omission. As they desert community life, they do not contribute anything to the community.

Foundation of justice is adherence to good faith in interactions, to not exploit others for profit. Individuals are meant to be useful to human community, without restricting obligations to those close to them. But being useful must not come at the expense of exploiting the rest of the world. Justice overrides that which can be useful. For useful activities that contain shameful elements should be rejected. Rejected even if the reprehensible behavior will not be made public.

Obligations of Philosophy:
The job of the philosopher is meant to teach obligations. To teach about the behaviors that each member in the community has to other members, and even beyond the community. That requires teaching about what is useful, honorable, and justice. There are behaviors which should be done because they are honorable. Praiseworthy behavior that should be done even within anyone praising the behavior.

Individuals are meant to be active in helping others, rather than being idle in seclusion. There is more to wisdom than just obtaining knowledge. Knowledge needs to be applied, which facilitates practical wisdom. Knowledge is useless without practical action as a reward. Knowledge needs to be justified by applying knowledge in the service to the community.

There are those who undermine obligation by assuming a supreme good, which is not connected with virtue. Philosophers undermine social obligation by using their self-interest as a measurement for what is honorable. What that means is that friendship, generosity, and justice cannot be cultivated if they are not aligned with the philosopher’s perspective.

Justice, and Injustice:
Just behavior comes from preventing harm on others with the exception to an aggressor, and that individuals should observe the common good. Not even friendship overrides justice. Protection of interests needs to come without damaging others. Politicians should not promote advantages when they come about by hurting other communities or with dishonorable policies. Even within commerce, merchants are meant to declare defects in the products. Corruption comes about from those proclaiming to be doing good and useful activities, but utilize inappropriate behaviors and policies.

Roots of injustice come from fear, greed, and lust for dominance and fame. Sometimes injustices are justified when committing a harm to prevent more harm. There are individuals who seek the rewards of actions, but ignore the consequences of their actions. Law can be escaped by those who harm, but they cannot escape the knowledge of what they had done. A constant reminder of the harm they have committed. Better to avoid those who do not have regrets over harm done, or that the harm done was appropriate or justified.

Cicero uses Caesar as the example of not just behavior. Caesar treated Cicero generously, but understood Cicero’s disdain for Caesar. Cicero saw Caesar as the individual responsible for the fall of the Roman Republic.

Decisions are difficult and have many uncertainties about their use and impact. Many question whether their decision is appropriate or reprehensible. The following issue with decisions is whether they are useful, if the decision is beneficial to them. The third issue is the conflict between what is useful and what is just. These are issues within decision making that can be paralyzing and cause indecision. A conflict between what is honorable and useful, which needs resolution. When there is uncertainty whether a decision is appropriate or not, better to be patient and clear up the uncertainty. Fairness within decision clears up uncertainty.

How To Treat Others:
The individual judges oneself differently then when judging others. Everyone should be treated with at least some respect, and avoid harming their self-worth. A lack of integrity is shown when disregarding what others think of oneself.

Considering the welfare of others and being generous towards them, should not go beyond the resources available for appropriate distribution to close individuals and their futures. Excess generosity does not come from generosity or honorable conduct but is disguised as such. Excess generosity has its own self-interested motivations.

Success must not come along with arrogance, contempt, and disdain. Appropriate behavior and retaining a dignified character are the desired attributes. Decision making changes during success, making it important to utilize advice of those trusted, while being careful of those who flatter and deceive. Many make grievous errors by taking the advice of those who flattered their ego.

Justice, Even In Time Of War:
Even within warfare, there are decisions which must be upheld by the state. Military disputes can be settled by negotiation or by force. Within civil societies, force is allowed if negotiation is not possible.

Just war comes about after due warning and demands for satisfaction are provided. Wars are meant to be used as tools for living peaceably without suffering injustice. The defeated are to be spared and forgiven, unless they committed terrible injustices.

Caveats?
A difficult book to read because of the era in which it was written in. The era also makes the many references, not readily familiar.

Many of the claims that Cicero provides need to be adjusted for they carry ambiguity. The claims have philosophical paradoxes and additional contextual complications. Even Cicero recognized the complexity of the claims, and tried to guide the reader in how to overcome them.


( )

Cicero's book is intelligent and charming, though his usual--how can I put this?--hatred of poor people does dull through the brilliance. But you shouldn't really need a goodreads review to convince you to read this book, which is tremendously important for the history of ideas Europe.

You might need a review to suggest a particular edition, and I heartily recommend this one. It's an ideal of its kind. Walsh's notes are full, relevant, and broad (they cover biography, history, and philosophy); his introduction is, too (they cover those three, as well as the book's later influence). The text reads well. Highly recommended. ( )

It's interesting that I followed up the previous collection of Cicero's orations with this book. This work of Cicero's (originally titled De Officiis), really makes plain a lot of the sensibilities which I simply intuited from his orations. I mentioned in my last review that Cicero was very suspicious of people who sought to manipulate a populace in order to create a factious mob. This work illustrates his ideals with a lot of poignant quotes. I would like to share some of those because they are quite astute. First, a quote regarding the ambitions of tyrannical leaders:

“Now it is hard, when you covet pre-eminence, to maintain the equity which is the most essential property of justice. Hence it is that such men suffer themselves to be overcome neither in debate nor by any legal or constitutional hindrance, and in the state they, for the most part, employ bribery and intrigue that they may acquire the greatest influence possible, and may rise by force, rather than maintain equality with their fellow-citizens by justice.”

Later on the same page, he follows the previous idea up with this:

“A soul truly and wisely great regards the right to which the nature of man aspires as consisting in deeds, not in fame; it chooses to be chief rather than seem so. On the other hand, he who depends on the waywardness of the undiscerning multitude does not deserve to be reckoned among great men.”

It seems likely that Cicero saw these kinds of leaders as especially pernicious because of their ability to sway a population, and, seemingly, to weaponize them as a mob.

We have a tendency to think that Socialism/Communism is a relatively new philosophical/political movement that went as far back as the 19th century and no further, but, as Cicero proves, it is not a new idea at all. Even in his day, devious politicians gained power by promising people the property of those who were more well-to-do. Once again, this makes plain how suspicious Cicero was of leaders that sought to manipulate a gullible population. There are some really great quotes regarding this. Keep in mind that agrarianism was the ancient version of Socialism:

“He who administers the affairs of the state must take special care that every man be defended in the possession of what rightfully belongs to him, and that there be no encroachment on private property by public authority. Philippus, during his tribunate, when he proposed the agrarian law (which he readily suffered to be rejected, behaving in the matter with great moderation), while in defending the measure he said many things adapted to cajole the people, did mischief by the ill-meant statement that there were not in the city two thousand men that had any property. It was a criminal utterance, tending to an equal division of property, than which what more ruinous policy can there be?”

Following this up on another page, he says this:

“Those, therefore, who desire to be popular, and with that view either attempt agrarian measures, that the occupants of the public domains may be driven from their homes, or advocate the remission of debts, are undermining the foundations of the state, - in the first place, harmony, which cannot exist when money is taken from some and debts are canceled for others; in the next place, equity, which is utterly destroyed, if hindrances are laid in the way of men's keeping their property. For, as I said above, this belongs to the very idea of state and a city, that the protection of every man's property should be certain and not a subject of solicitude. Moreover, by measures thus ruinous to the state men do not gain the favor they anticipate. He from whom property is taken becomes their enemy.”

A good summation of Cicero's position is shown with this quote:

“From this kind of generosity, then, - the giving to some what is taken from others, - those who mean to be guardians of the state will refrain, and will especially bestow their efforts, that through the equity of the laws and of their administration every man may have his own property made secure, and that neither the poorer may be defrauded on account of their lowly condition, nor any odium may stand in the way of the rich in holding or recovering what belongs to them...”

Cicero also deals with what we today would often call pluralism (i.e. where everyone looks out for their own interests and those of their group):

“...this is the consummate reason and wisdom of a good citizen, not to create separate interests among those of the same state, but to hold all together by the same principles of equity.”

Clearly, Cicero understood that a society cannot function with divisive special interest groups. There must be cohesiveness in any functioning society. Equity is the cohesiveness that he specifically names. No such cohesiveness can be had when people are given special rights at the cost of others and when people look to gain the property belonging to others.

Nearer the end of the book, Cicero tackles the subject of expediency and whether it is different than what is right. There were philosophers prior to Cicero that had sought to make a distinction between the two, but Cicero was adamant that what is right is also expedient and what is expedient must be right. One can modernize the subject a little by noting that it is basically the same as the subject regarding the relationship between means and ends. There have been utilitarians that argued that the end justifies the means, but others have forcefully argued the reverse, that the means cannot be divorced from the ends - both must be equally blameless. Certainly, Cicero would be on the side of the latter position (so would I, btw).

I would say this is definitely an essential work of Cicero's. Along with the Republic, De Finibus, De Legibus and the Tusculan Disputations, this work provides the most detail regarding Cicero's ethical and political philosophy. Highly recommended. ( )

SOBRE LOS DEBERES/ON THE DUTIES

“El que cortésmente enseña el camino a quien se ha extraviado,hace como el que enciende con su luz la de otro; después de habérsela encendido, no por eso la suya alumbrará menos”
(Ennio citado por Cicerón en “De Officiis”,Libro I, Cap. XVI)

1. Vida y personalidad

Se llamaba Marco Tulio Cicerón, y gracias a sus dotes innatas y a una esmerada educación, se convirtió en un hombre de estado. Como figura de prestigio, destacaba por mostrar cierta arrogancia y por una voz extensa de timbre agradable. Su ingenio singular, su talento y elocuencia, unido a un patriotismo sin igual, le convierten en un personaje destacado de la Roma clásica, pues no en vano, fue contemporáneo de Julio cesar y Marco Antonio.

Apasionado del estudio, en general, y de la Ciencia, en particular, destacaba por llevar una vida ordenada y sobria. Era amable en el trato, y fiel a sus amigos. Sus únicos defectos: una vanidad y anhelos de gloria que rebasaban lo correcto.
Como buen intelectual estaba convencido de que se podía dirigir a los hombres con la razón y la palabra.

Destacan en Cicerón, tres facetas: como orador (la fama se la debe a sus discursos), como político, y como escritor académico – filosófico ( aunque consideraba sus obras filosóficas, un fruto del ocio, en realidad, este fue su único consuelo). Escritos sobre retórica, filosófia, académicos, y morales. Dentro de éstos últimos, se encuentra su obra “De Officiis” (“los Deberes”), en la que se centra este trabajo.

2. “De officiis” (los deberes)
(A) La razón y la palabra

Cicerón explica que el hombre es superior a las bestias pues está iluminado por la razón, por eso, puede conocer las causas y efectos de los acontecimientos, investiga las diferencias y similitudes, enlaza presente pasado y futuro… todo aquello que los seres no pueden hacer sólo con el instinto. Esta razón le da al hombre un sentimiento de unidad hacía los otros hombres, pues comparte con ellos la capacidad de pensar. Sobre esto, dice Cicerón:

“El primer principio común a todo el género humano es la razón y el uso de la palabra o lenguaje. Estas dos facultades nos sirven para aprender, para enseñar, para dar a conocer nuestros pensamientos, para discurrir y para juzgar; ellas unen a los hombres entre sí en una sociedad, por decirlo así, natural.” (Libro I, Cap.XVI)

Es cierto que compartimos la razón. pero también tenemos algo peculiar, de cada uno: diferentes cualidades físicas y psíquicas, e infinidad de temperamentos y costumbres. Cada cual debe elegir el personaje que quiere representar. Hay que reflexionar detenidamente para ver que es lo que nos conviene más, para saber qué queremos ser.

Dice Cicerón:

“Conozca, pues, cada cual su propia manera de ser, y sopese con severa imparcialidad sus buenas y sus malas cualidades, a fin de que no se diga que los actores cómicos tienen más discernimiento que nosotros, pues ellos no se encargan de los papeles de mayor lucimiento, sino de aquellos que saben que se adpta mejor a sus aptitudes.” ( Libro I, Cap. XXXI

Having read other translations of Cicero, I have to say this one is incredibly wooden, too literal. Cicero is anything but boring, but an unimaginative translation has rendered him a corpse. ( )